Thomas the Apostle in India Essay Example for Free

Thomas the Apostle in India Essay The essay will discuss the debate concerning the arrival of Thomas Apostle to India. Based on the information available to researchers, the paper will argue that St. Thomas had actually lived in India. Two different theories that present opposing views concerning this topic will be presented in this paper. One theory argues that Thomas the Apostle had stayed in South India, while another theory argues that Thomas the Apostle did not come to India. There is also controversy regarding the place that was visited by the great saint. One group argues that he had stayed in North India while another group of scholars argue that in actuality he had stayed in the south. The essay will cover various facts, issues, and debates concerning Thomas the Apostles’ arrival to India. Malabar, the land where the apostle is said to have arrived, maintained trade and cultural contact with the western world. This was the center of the Jewish and Christian settlements, the remains of which can be seen even today. Many Christians decided to stay in Cranganore, a Malabar port, in order to avoid their harassment by the Roman Empire in Jerusalem. This shows that from historical times, Christians showed their liking for South Indian regions. (Coipuram, 2002)   Therefore, it is not surprising that Jesus Christ ordered St. Thomas to go the East particularly to India and China in order to spread the message of Christianity. St. Thomas arrived in South India in the year 52 AD. (Coipuram, 2002)   St. Thomas worked with the Christians as well as the local community. He was able to impress the people and the kings through his miracles. At the same time, his acts inspired the orthodox Brahmins of South India to kill him in 72 AD in Mylapore in the present Tamil Nadu, a South Indian state. (Coipuram, 2002)     The remains of the saint were taken to Turkey in 8th century and later they were sent to Rome. (Coipuram, 2002) It is stated that St. Thomas had constructed seven churches in different parts of Malabar. Christians of the region celebrate several festivals that are connected with the activities of St. Thomas. Many Christian communities came to India from Turkey. In the year 345 AD, some Christians settled in Cranganore. The Christians of the regions are known as the St. Thomas Christians. (Coipuram, 2002) Information regarding the activities of St. Thomas in India is found in the book â€Å"Acta Thomae† or Acts of Judas Thomas, which is dated to the end of 1st century AD. (Ninnan, n.d) The book is available in various languages including Syrian, Greek, Latin, Armenian, and Ethiopic. According to this book, St. Thomas and other apostles shared the whole world among themselves for the purpose of propagating Christianity. Jesus Christ sold Thomas to Habban of India who was looking for a carpenter. (Ninnan, n.d)   This forced Thomas to accompany Habban to India. Thomas reached the kingdom of Gondaphorus where Thomas was asked to build a palace.   St. Thomas performed various miracles winning the hearts of many people in India. Consequently, he was able to convert a few Indians. St. Thomas converted the Gondaphorus king, king of Mazdai, a noble lady named Mygdonia, and Tertia, the queen of Mazdai. (Ninnan, n.d)   The book â€Å"Acta Thomae† also states that the apostle became an apostle outside the city of the kingdom as he was killed by four soldiers. (Ninnan, n.d)   The book reveals that St. Thomas had arrived and stayed in India. (Ninnan, n.d)   There are many local traditions that claim that St. Thomas had arrived and stayed in South India. Such traditions are found in the works such as Songs of Nazranis, Thomma Parvam (1601 AD), and Veeradian Pattu. (Ninnan, n.d.) The local traditions claim that St. Thomas had stayed in Cranganore and converted the local people into Christianity. It is said that during the initial years of the stay of St. Thomas in Cranganore, he converted the Jewish settlers in the region. (Ninnan, n.d)   In the next phase, he converted 75 Brahmin families and 3000 others, who were obviously impressed by his miracles. (Ninnan, n.d.) The South Indian connection of St. Thomas is proved by the theory that due to the discovery of Hippalus wind in 45 AD, many westerners used to sail from Yemen directly to the Malabar Coast. (Ninnan, n.d.) Therefore, it is suggested that Thomas had stayed in the Malabar region. Apart from this theory and local traditions, there are no other strong evidences to state that St.Thomas had actually stayed in South India.    St. Thomas’s stay and death in North India is mentioned in the ancient Syrian texts. There are archaeological and literary evidences to state that the king of Gondaphorus had maintained contact with Christian saints and that he was finally converted to Christianity. (Ninnan, n.d.)   Nevertheless, it is not important whether St. Thomas had stayed in North India or South India. The Gospel of Thomas, an apocryphal book, gives information pertaining to the work of St. Thomas in India. This book was not given much importance by the church authorities as it was believed that the book had undermined the teachings of Jesus, but researchers do not accept such allegations as this book does not contradict the teachings of Jesus Christ. (Gjorgjievski, 2001, p. 1) The book the Gospel of Thomas mentions that since St. Thomas refused to go to India, he was compelled by Jesus Christ to go to the East by selling Thomas to Abban, an envoy of the king Gundaphor. (Gjorgjievski, 2001, p. 1) It is stated that after coming to India, the apostle, instead of constructing a palace as he was asked by the king, distributed the money among the poor, which enraged the king who imprisoned the saint. (Gjorgjievski, 2001, p. 1)   Eventually, the king realized the divine power of the saint and accepted Christianity. The evidence of this book also shows that St. Thomas had come to North India although South Indians claim that he had stayed in South India.   (Gjorgjievski, 2001, p. 1) There are two phases of Thomas’s activities in India. In the first phase, he taught the Parthians ruled by the famous king Gondaphares who lived during 1st century AD. (Medlycott n.d.) In the earliest ecclesiastical writings, one gets the information pertaining to the first phase of the stay of Thomas in India. During the second phase, he seems to have visited South India. (Medlycott n.d.) This is because it is widely believed that St. Thomas died in Mylapore and his tomb could be found in this city although later his body remains were taken to Turkey. (Medlycott n.d.) This is proved by the evidences provided by various scholars who visited this region from the early years of Christian era to the Portuguese period. The Portuguese scholars have mentioned the existence of Christian traditions in Mylapore. (Medlycott n.d.) Therefore, this study has presented an eclectic view concerning the place where St. Thomas lived. The study shows that St. Thomas lived both in western India as well as in South India. (Medlycott,   n.d.) Evidences regarding St. Thomas are available in the works of Syrian writers, liturgical books and calendars of the Syrian Church, works of the fathers belonging to western church, works of fathers belonging to Greek and Abyssinian churches. (Medlycott, n.d.) The study of Prof. Carl Schmidt regarding the â€Å"Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles† has proved the authenticity of apocryphal works that describe the activities of St. Thomas in India. (Medlycott n.d.) Therefore, without any doubt one may accept the ancient Syrian and Latin works that describe the stay of St. Thomas in India. (Medlycott, n.d.) In ancient but revised Syriac work, â€Å"The Teaching of the Apostles†, it is mentioned that St. Thomas the apostle had actually lived in India. St. Thomas, who was also called Didymus was invited by Jesus to become his apostle and spread the message of Christianity in the east. (Jesuvera, 2006)     The St. Thomas feast day is celebrated in the Malabar on July 3rd every year. (Jesuvera, 2006) The Christians theologians believe that St. Thomas had preached to the people such as Parthians, Medes, Persians, Bactrians, Margians, and South Indians. (Jesuvera, 2006)   In the work, â€Å"Assumption of Mary†, a work belonging to 400 AD, there is reference to St. Thomas of India staying near the body of Virgin Mary on the day of her â€Å"body assumption†. (Jesuvera, 2006)  Ã‚     Evidences concerning Thomas apostle’s life in India are found in Syrian Christian literature and traditions found in India. (Jesuvera, 2006) With the arrival of the European missionaries to India after 16th century, many Europeans were informed that in India there existed a Christian community called â€Å"St. Thomas Christians†. Based on this, it was suggested that St. Thomas had really stayed in India and convinced a few Indians to accept Christianity. (Sharan, n.d.)   Contrary to this belief, it is argued that the Christian communities of Kerala were given the name only after 14th Century with the arrival of the European missionaries to Malabar. (Sharan, n.d.)   It is argued that this Christian community was actually called Syrian Christians and not St. Thomas Christians. (Sharan, n.d.) It is argued that Europeans propagated the myth of St. Thomas in order to achieve the political and religious agendas of converting India as a part of European or British imperialism and to convert large numbers of Indians into Christianity. (Sharan, n.d.)   To support this argument, correspondence of Fr. A. Mathias Mundadan who was satisfied with the fact that evidence existed to prove that St. Thomas had stayed in India. (Sharan, n.d.) It is argued that based on inaccurate evidences or hagiographies one cannot suggest that St. Thomas had lived and died in India. (Sharan, n.d.) It has been argued that St. Thomas never came to India. In reality, Christianity was established in India for the time in 345 AD by a merchant called Thomas Cananeus. (Sharan, n.d.)   Based on similarity of names, it has been suggested that St. Thomas had come to India and established Christianity in South India. (Sharan, n.d.) Traditions related to Thomas are found not only in India but also other countries of the orient such as Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, Brazil, and Mexico. (Merrilat, 1977) This shows that many oriental countries have constructed their own myths concerning the arrival of St. Thomas to their land and introducing Christianity. Therefore, there is need for strong evidences to accept the belief that St. Thomas actually lived and died in India. Recently, a controversy has been created when the pope Benedict XVI suggested that St. Thomas had come to Western India. Implicitly, this statement has negated the assumption that the apostle had come to South India. (Pope denies, n.d.)   This statement also shows that the pope accepts the fact that St. Thomas had stayed in India although this statement has hurt the sentiments of the Christians of Kerala who strongly believe that St. Thomas had come to the Malabar region in the 1st century AD. (Pope denies, n.d.) The statement of the pope also shows that the apostle had actually come to North India and not to South India. This statement has been used by the scholars to suggest that St. Thomas had never stayed in India. The scholars, who refused to accept that St. Thomas had visited the present India, argue that he had actually visited the regions of Pakistan. (Pope denies, n.d.) This statement cannot be accepted because as already mentioned, there are many evidences showing that St. Thomas had actually lived in some parts of India. Most of the predecessors of the present pope had accepted that St. Thomas was an apostle of India. (Pope denies, n.d.) The church sources do not deny that St. Thomas had lived in India. The debate is regarding whether the apostle had stayed in North India or in South India. Already it has been mentioned that works such as Gospel of St. Thomas and Act of Thomas refer to the work of St. Thomas in India. The statement made by the pope has created controversy among the Christians of Kerala as a few churches in the region are dedicated to the memory of St. Thomas. (Pope denies, n.d.) In conclusion, there are sufficient evidences ancient, medieval, and modern to suggest that St. Thomas had actually lived and died in India. During the first phase of his stay in India he worked in Western India with the king Gondaphares. During the second phase, he visited South India and spread Christianity in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The saint’s tomb can be found in Mylapore although later his remains were taken to Turkey and eventually to Rome. Thus, he lived both in North India as well as South India. The books such Gospel of St. Thomas and Act of Thomas describe the various events related to the life of St. Thomas when he stayed in India. Therefore, there are solid evidences to assert that St. Thomas lived and died in India. References Gjorgjievski, B.T. (2001). On the Gospel of Thomas. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from the web site: http://darktreasures.com/Strangelore/Stuff/on-thomas.pdf Jesuvera. (2006). Feast of St. Thomas – Apostle to India. Konkani Catholics Blog. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from the web site: http://www.konkanicatholics.com/ Medlycott, A.E. (n.d.). India and the Apostle Thomas. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from the web site: http://www.indianchristianity.com/html/chap4/chapter4b.htm Merrilat, H.C. (1997). The Gnostic Apostle Thomas. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from the web site: http://members.aol.com/didymus5/intro.html Ninnan, M.M. (n.d.). Story of St. Thomas Apostle and St. Thomas Churches of India A Short History. Retrieved April 12, 2007, from the web site: http://www.acns.com/~mm9n/marthoma/marthoma.htm Pope denies St. Thomas came to South India. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from the web site: http://www.hamsa.org/index.htm Sharan, I. (n.d.). The myth of St. Thomas and the Mylapore Shiva temple. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from the web site: http://www.hamsa.org/01.htm

US Criminal Justice: Ethics and Professional Behaviour

US Criminal Justice: Ethics and Professional Behaviour Ethics and professional behaviour are an important part of criminal justice administration. Ethics involves making moral judgements about what is good or bad, right or wrong. Ethics help us to make right choices when we are in a dilemma which involves moral issues. The Criminal justice administration faces ethical issues very often and it is important to deal with them in a professional manner. The administration suffers with issues in certain situations that are hard to handle and it is the duty or rather we can say the criminal justice administration are obliged to make moral judgements of what is right or wrong and this is done with the help of proper critical thinking. Good ethics contribute to professional behaviour. Law enforcement plays a major role in professional behaviour and ethics. The unethical acts by criminal justice are serious and there are possibilities for conflicts in the areas of criminal justice leading to unethical decisions. It is necessary that ethics and pro fessional behaviour are practiced every time. If the administration is unethical and there is no professional behaviour then it is obvious for the society to lose faith in the criminal justice system. Ethics and professional behaviour are directly related to each other. Lack of ethics lead to lack of professional behaviour which means a weak criminal justice administration. Ethics are moral values or moral judgements which we make in order to decide what is right or wrong, good or bad. For making this type of decision, one needs to have a sound mind and the moral principles do not apply themselves, a thinking mind is required to asses facts and interpret situations. Moral agents make moral judgements and it is our duty to use the ethical principles in a right way. Moral principles mean something only when manifested in behaviour. For this, force should be embodied in action and this action requires an insight. Ethical persons are motivated to do what is morally right but they can only do so if they know what it is. It is important that the ethically motivated persons should learn the art of self-critique, moral examination to become attuned to the pervasive pitfalls of moral judgement: moral intolerance, self-deception, and uncritical uniformity. (http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/ethics-without-indoctrination/494). Morality and character can be cul tivated without being indoctrinated by putting in the critical thinking into the heart of ethical curriculum, critical thinking for everyone. Hence, it can be said that without critical thinking ethics and professional behaviour cant be maintained. Thus, critical thinking plays a major role. Our greatest training is ethics and leadership is required in order to boost its growth. It is seen that most departments dont conduct ethics training and the consequences of these unethical behaviour is devastating. One of the more detrimental consequences of unethical behaviour is subjecting of an agency to civil litigation. Litigations have various forms: racial and sexual discrimination, sexual harassment suits etc. Lack of ethical behaviour leads to loss of jobs of the officers and many a times the unemployment compensation is not even offered. It is also noticed that many a times the officers commit suicide as they fail to deal with the unethical acts. Hence, one should try and prevent any kind of unethical act as it will help us to save the lives of our officers. The most extensive ethics training survey conducted by law enforcement was undertaken in 1997. This in return, has produced several recommendations for changes in how one should address the ethics today. Hence, ethics training should highly be encouraged and seminars should be conducted so that our officers deal with unethical behaviour without fearing anything and should join hands to eliminate it. The fundamental duties of Law Enforcement Officers include: serving the mankind, safeguarding lives of the people and property, protecting the weak against oppression, maintaining law and order, and to respect the Constitutional rights of everyone. They are honest in thought and deed and obey the laws of the land and regulations of their department. He should make sure that his personal feelings and friendships dont influence his decisions. He should see that he doesnt makes any kind of compromises for crime and that he will enforce the laws accordingly and appropriately without any favour or malice. The officer should realise that his badge is a symbol of public faith and it is his duty to be true to the ethics of the police service. All these areas should be stressed in the seminar on law enforcement. Ethical training overrules all other training needs. Ethical training emphasizes the importance of thinking before acting. It adds value to the organization and to the community. The study of ethics increases sensitivity to the issues of right or wrong and the right way to conduct oneself. Only through studying ethics is it possible to define and detect unethical behavior. The study of the ethics enables the development of tools that enhances ones decision making. The training in ethics helps to develop analytical skills and reasoning abilities which are required to understand the theoretical as well as practical aspects of criminal justice system. The expected benefits of training the officers are: To recognize the ethical problem, To make a sound choice and right decision, To accept his responsibility. Provides ethical tools to deal with ethical problems. Ethics training should provide tools that assist them to think and act ethically in both their personal and professional lives. Ethics training encourages the professional to be an integrated person and this integrity must be personal as well as professional. Ethics training can be thus viewed as Risk Management because their motto is to prevent injuries to people and thats what ethical training aims at. Thus, it can be said that ethics training program provides tools which helps make a right decision which will contribute to the betterment of the community even. Answer to Question 2 Police agencies have got various functions which include preventing and controlling the conduct and behavior that threatens property or life, maintaining security etc. Sometimes the police agencies even take care of those who are incapable of taking their own care, for example physically challenged or mentally ill people. It is their duty to resolve the conflicts that arise and to identify the problems that give rise to danger. The police agencies differ depending on the three levels local, state and federal levels. Local agencies deal with emergency services, routine patrol, and detention for juveniles, community relations, record keeping, creating agendas etc. The primary purpose of these local agencies is to uphold the laws of the jurisdiction and investigate crimes at local level. State agencies are supposed to maintain public relations, safety and the criminal investigations. Federal agencies are specialized, having separate mandates to enforce certain types of federal laws (there are about 200 federal crimes). (http://www.faculty.ncwc.edu/mstevens/111/111lect05.htm) It deal with matters affecting the entire country i.e. terrorism, organized crime etc. Comparison: Local, State and Federal agencies share the same roles and functions as it is mentioned above. Contrasts: The difference lies only in cases of certain jurisdictions that affect the funding, operation and support. Local levels: The officers here are supported largely by the support staffs, detectives, jailers and protect the citizens and to enforce the laws passed at all levels of the government. They differ from the state and federal level as their activities are confined only to the jurisdictions they have been assigned. State Levels: The officers working under state level enforce local, state and federal laws; many are even found enforcing state traffic, civil or criminal laws. Even the officers in the state prison are taken as a part of law enforcement efforts different from others in that they enforce state laws within state institution. Federal levels: Different types of agents are employed including the special agents, ranging from the FBI (federal bureau of investigation), Bureau of alcohol to the Indian Affairs bureau. Their task is not to enforce state or local laws but to intervene when matters at global level are concerned. The law enforcement field is changing in its organizational strategies, methods and various aspects. Organizational management aims in improving the services, and the trends of development at various levels of the policing organizations. As we all know that the police agencies are bestowed with routine functions at numerous operational levels. These agencies highly contribute to the criminal justice systems and contribute to the other organizations. The trends on which the future policing will operate depend upon the way each of the organization is affected. It is these trends which clarify the operational aspects within the policing organizations. The management employs different levels of people to make decisions based on the success of the organization. The organizational management differs at all the three levels as the local levels are confined to the jurisdictions assigned where as the state levels enforces laws of state, locals as well as federal and the federal levels looks a fter the matters relating to the global level. Answer to Question 3 The safeguards against application of criminal laws are the criminal procedures. These procedures are designed to enforce the constitutional rights of criminal suspects and defendants. The constitutional provisions are mentioned in the IV, V, VI and VIII Amendments to the U.S Constitution. Fourth Amendment: (Exclusionary Rule) The right to be free from unreasonable searches and arrests is covered by the fourth amendment. The people shall be free and it is the right of the people to be secure in their houses against any kind of seizures. The warrants against the person shall only be issued if there is an authentic cause and the warrant shall be supported by an oath or affirmation which includes the details of the place to be searched. Since fourth amendment prohibits unreasonable searches hence, a warrant isnt required often. The U.S. Supreme Court has held that the Fourth Amendment doesnt require a warrant for all searches; rather it prohibits unreasonable searches. (http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Criminal_Procedure.aspx ) Fifth Amendment: (Miranda warnings) It deals with concerns which require proper procedures to be followed, like the death penalty, multiple trials for same criminal offence which is also referred to as Double Jeopardy, self incrimination etc. It states that no person shall be held to answer for a capital unless on presentment of a Jury, no person shall be subject for the same offence twice put in jeopardy of life, and that no person shall be deprived of liberty, property without the process of law. Sixth Amendment: (Right to Counsel and Speedy trial) It provides that the accused shall enjoy the Right to public trial by an impartial Jury of State in all criminal prosecutions; he should be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation, he should be made to confront with the witnesses against him and to have processes to obtain the witnesses in his favour. The federal courts must comply with all the criminal procedures that are listed in the Constitution. For State Courts, the Supreme Court has adopted an approach called the selective incorporation approach where fundamental rights are protected which include freedom from unreasonable researches, freedom from cruel punishment; assistance of counsel, protection against double jeopardy etc. In juvenile proceedings, juvenile courts must afford to the juveniles basic constitutional protections. It is also been held that the Fourth Amendment requires that a juvenile who is arrested without a warrant should be provided with a probable cause hearing. The exclusionary rule applies to federal adjudications. In juvenile proceedings, the juveniles are entitled to the Fifth Amendment protection against self-incrimination despite the non-criminal nature of the proceedings. The Fifth Amendment applies since a juvenile defendants liberty is at stake. The Sixth Amendment applies to juveniles just as it applies to the adults accused of crime. Discuss the impact that these safeguards (e.g., Right to Counsel, Miranda Warnings, and speedy trial, the exclusionary rule, etc.) have on the day-to- day operation of adult and juvenile courts. It has been seen that under the automobile exception, warrantless searches of an automobile may be permitted if the police officer believes that a certain automobile holds the evidence of a crime. This exception is in no ways a violation of the Fourth Amendment because the vehicles are mobile and the drivers dont really have much privacy. This reduced expectation of privacy permits the officers with probable cause to search a vehicle and inspect the passenger and drivers belongings. However, it is not required by the states to adopt this exception as expanded protections are provided by New Hampshire under the Fourth Amendment. The Exclusionary Rule deals with the protection of the rights to be free from unreasonable searches. It holds that the subject matter that is obtained illegally by the officers must not be used as evidence. To make an arrest, police needs to have an arrest warrant and if the police believes that there is a probable cause and there was no time to create the warrant then he can make a warrantless arrest. In dealing with juveniles, police issue Miranda Warnings to youths prior to custodial investigation. (http://cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/A-separate-system-for-juveniles.topicArticleId-10065,articleid-10059.html ) At the time of the arrest it is important that the officer reads out the Miranda warnings to the arrestee, which says that the arrestee might obtain the right to counsel and the right to remain silent. In case these warnings are not read out then the statements he would make after the arrest may be excluded from the trial. Hence, it is visible that these constitutional safeguards affect the adult and juvenile courts and has a huge impact. Answer to Question 4 Impact of globalization on the U.S. criminal justice system Globalization refers to the global outlook of different nations of the globe who unite in terms of economy, society and politics. Globalization talks of all the nations as a whole and thus, it has been successful in reuniting all the nations together as one. Globalization aims at helping nations communicate with each other and therefore, the whole process of globalization is an amalgamation of integration and interaction among people belonging to different nations, cast, and organizations of various nations. Economic integration through investment and trade, political interaction, information technologies and culture constitutes its various magnitudes which directly affect the environment. Globalization has a huge impact on the lives of people and has greatly affected the world. Movement of materials and goods within national boundaries is easily possible, it is easy to procure external financing opportunities, the markets are now interrelated and nations are ready to provide their s upport, any kind of information can now be sent from one part to another with the help of satellites and internet, due to globalization people communicate through social networks and make friends across the globe etc. As technology advances and the power of technologies improve, it is obvious that the opportunity for cyber crimes will also increase. With the advance in technologies, a day will come when it will be real difficult to catch hold of these cyber criminals so it is necessary that a Criminal justice system is formulated which keeps themselves updated with the new technologies. Technological advances have a great influence in crime fighting. Crimes can be prevented by the use of advanced technologies like DNA analysis, radio frequency, surveillance developments etc. Because of globalization the people can even use intelligence databases which are usually carried by the police. Also, bilateral transfer of information between the countries will lead to changes in the countrys criminal justice system. Globalization has improved the technologies and in a way has brought carious nations close together. An anti-terrorism legislation investigates the terrorist cases and the process of screening, investigating has changed. A desire to improve the persisting relations has been expressed and jurisdiction programs and activities have been adopted to improve relations. Hence, it can be said that globalization has had a great impact in improving the U.S criminal justice system. Comparison among Civil Law, Common law, and Islamic Law and Socialist Law traditions The four legal traditions are as follows: Civil Law systems: It is the largest and most prevalent system of justice in the world. It is also referred as Continental justice, Roman law or Germano-romanic justice. Roman law is practiced in places like Germany, France and throughout Latin America. The object of civil law is the redress of wrongs by compelling compensation or restitution. (http://www.diffen.com/difference/Civil_law_vs_criminal_law) Legal scholarships are sophisticated in this kind of system and it has respect for tradition whereas in case of common law anybody can get a scholarship. The leaders of the continental justice are considered above the law whereas in common law nobody is above the law. Common law systems: These traditions exist in the U.S, Australia, England, Canada, India and colonies of Africa. They believe that any law originates in customs. In this system, the lawyers make interpretations and the precedents have control over the judges. Public trial is a very important constituent of this law system. Socialist law systems: This kind of tradition exists in Africa, Asia and parts of Latin America wherever there has been a communist revolution. It is also referred to as Communist Justice or Marxist Leninist justice. It is a positive law which aims at improvement. Administrative law prevails here as the decisions are mostly taken by the non-officials and neither judges nor lawyers are permitted to make law. Islamic systems: Famous as Muslim or Arabic justice. All the procedures and practices in this law are derived from the Koran. These are in the form of commands or orders which rule the life of an individual. It is the only law which believes that each and every law is of divine origin. Like in Roman or Common law, it might happen that an unlawful/unethical behavior is tolerated but in case of Islamic law never. Since, only a few verses of the Koran are used in Islamic law hence, it is mandatory that the religion plays an important role. Impact of cyber crime and technology on worldwide justice systems Cybercrime or criminal crime is a criminal activity where a computer is a source, target and place of the crime. It comprises of embezzlement, forgery, theft, fraud or blackmail and all this involves the presence of computers. Cybercrime ranges from email spams to threats of cyber wars, few of its forms are examples of simple theft such as stealing credit cards, bank account passwords etc. As the technology advances and the power of technologies improve, the opportunity for cyber related crimes will also gain momentum. So, it is important that the criminal justice systems keeps up with the advancing technologies or else it would get difficult to get hold of these cyber criminals. Cyber crime has huge impact on the victims and the criminal justice system despite the presence of network security programs and organizations who work to counteract these crime related threats, cybercrime continue to increase. It shouldnt mean that because cybercrime occurs therefore, we will stop using int ernet to work or play. Majority of sites on the internet are legitimate and our lives are highly enhanced because of the cyber tools. Users susceptibility to cybercrime can be reduced by the conduct of training programs by the employers as a part of security plan. Measures have been taken by the organizations to reduce the spread of cybercrimes. Globalization has greatly influenced the lives of the people by bringing in new methods and technologies and it has its own negative impact too. Advancement in the technologies has also contributed to the increased number of cybercrimes. The policing systems on a worldwide scale Statistics say that more than 800,000 people are employed by 17,500 police agencies at national, state, county and municipal levels. These agencies comprise of 50 federal law enforcement agencies, 49 state police departments, special police agencies 1,721 in number, 3,086 sheriffs departments and 12,502 municipal police departments. (http://cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/polce-systems.topicArticleId-10065,articleId-9950.html) Federal police agencies: these are a part of the executive branch of national government. Major federal law enforcements agencies are : Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI): Their duty is to protect the nation from crimes such as organized crime, terrorism, civil-right crimes, and violent crimes. It is also their duty to assist other agencies (local, state and federal) through its crime statistics, training academy etc. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF): the job of this agency is to find out the use of explosives and firearms by the criminals. The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA): Al the federal drug-control laws are enforced by DEA. The agents arrest drug traffickers. The Secret services: This service aims at protecting the President and other officials of federal government. The officers of federal law enforcement are being stationed overseas in order to combat the crimes such as terrorism, money laundering etc. State Police The tasks of the State Police agencies involves To assist the local law enforcement organizations in cases of criminal investigations. To maintain crime records for the State. To train municipal and county police; and To patrol the state highways. The Directors of the State police are appointed by the Governor. The California Highway patrol is the nations largest State Police Force. County Police The responsibility of policing the rural and unincorporated areas in the United States is of the Sheriffs. These sheriffs perform various kinds of duties which consists law enforcement and other court duties. They also serve as officers of county courts. Bailiffs are provided by the sheriffs office to provide security and to manage the defendants on trial. The sheriffs even transport prisoners from one court to another as required. Municipal police The responsibility of dealing with the violent crimes rest on the shoulders of city police and these are the ones who swear to protect the nation from the crimes. Big city police departments are headed over by the Chiefs who are appointed by the mayors. Major crimes and criminal issues that have a global impact on justice systems and processes The fall of the Soviet Empire lead to the downfall of various national armies all over the world. For example, in Somalia and Yugoslavia, the end of cold war meant a rapid escalation of instability and conflict as the former allies lost interests in keeping the governments in power. (http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/Contracting-peacekeeping-operations-to-the-private-sector.php) The experiences of the U.S with security companies in Afghanistan and Iraq lead to serious problems like misconduct of the operations and dishonest business practices. A revolution in peace keeping was brought about by the Cold War; and this peacekeeping tried to keep neutrality. As mentioned above, post Cold-War the need for a new and improved peacekeeping was felt and there was increased instability. The rise and rapid fall of new world order in peacekeeping was seen in the 1990s and Bosnia, Rwanda and Somalia became the nadir in the three acts of peacekeeping. It was realized that some changes need to be made and thus Brahmi Report was brought in the 2000s. The recommendations brought improvements in the U.N. Department of Peacemaking Operations. It is noticed that inspite of the implementations in the peacekeeping order, the pace is still slow and inefficient. The three failures of the 1990s i.e. Bosnia, Somalia and Rwanda it was decided that a new improved peacekeeping order is required which was mentioned in the Brahmi Report of 2000 which resulted in an improved peacekeeping. It was also seen that few militaries targeted their own citizens and were involved in wars with their neighbors. For instance, Rwandas interfering in the Democratic Public of Congo) Todays century peacemaking techniques help the peacemakers to reduce the harm to the peace making order. It took three years for the Democratic Republic of China to gain strong troop strength and the attacks continued for about six years. In the same way missions in Darfur and the DRC suffered from low troop numbers. In the U.S, the Secretary of Defense hired a company to consult with the armed forces to unveil cost-saving measures. This showed that PMSCs had a great role to play. The deaths of 30 U.S military servicemen and the videos of their naked corpses led to the Somalia Syndrome. The infamous case of Rwanda in 1994 threw light on the consequences of lack of action by the international community. PMSCs have been active in Somalia since the beginning of the decade. The serious issues include illegal fishing, piracy, and the dumping of toxic wastes. Each of the three Somali governments has engaged separate PMSCs to secure the maritime trade and counteract such activities. The criminal jurisdiction and responsibilities should be resided with the U.N. as no other State have ensured that crimes should be looked into and answered other than the PMSCs. The UN has taken up the responsibility for the forces which are put under its commands on various occasions.

Love and sex are two different emotions that when are put together they

Love and sex are two different emotions that when are put together they make an all around love relationship. LOVE ==== Love and sex are two different emotions that when are put together they make an all around love relationship. Love is an emotional feeling that a partner or both partners are feeling towards one another. Sex on the other hand is a physical action that is taking place between both partners. Men and women may have different views on love and sex. In the short story, " I fell in love, or my hormones awakened", a little girl has a crush on a young man. The short story demonstrates the responses that men and women have towards love, lust, and hate. In this short story, the young girl who is a freshman in high school believes she is in love with this young man who is a senior in high school. Throughout the story she demonstrates how much she loves him by her obsession to follow him around. He works at a market and she would always make excuses to go to the market and purchase certain items. The only reason she would go is to see her love. The young man worked in the back and she would hang around just to see him walk by the door. She was all excited when he talked to her but all he said was excuse me. Throughout the whole story the young girl has this crush on the young man but the young man is starting to realize this and is thinking what to do about it. Love for women is something that is very serious and delicate. Love for a man is basically not a big deal until it becomes serious in a sense of marriage. This young lady shows how much she loves him by always starring at him in the hallways and he shows nothing when he is feeling something inside for this girl. Basically what I'm sa... ...at girl and not have any strings attached afterwards. The girl was looking for strings attached because girls believe that a kiss means their going to be together. The man just wanted a kiss and the girl wanted to be with him. There responses were different and their interpretations were different as well. In conclusion, the short story showed how a young girl could love a young man who did not even know she existed. She showed her love for this man by doing things out of the ordinary just to see his face. The short story showed the love between a woman and a man and the lust between the two and also to affects of the kiss. The affects of the kiss were basic. They never spoke to each other and never the less have the opportunity to have the chance to talk to each other again. The short story demonstrated many of key points in a crush and love scenario. Love and sex are two different emotions that when are put together they Love and sex are two different emotions that when are put together they make an all around love relationship. LOVE ==== Love and sex are two different emotions that when are put together they make an all around love relationship. Love is an emotional feeling that a partner or both partners are feeling towards one another. Sex on the other hand is a physical action that is taking place between both partners. Men and women may have different views on love and sex. In the short story, " I fell in love, or my hormones awakened", a little girl has a crush on a young man. The short story demonstrates the responses that men and women have towards love, lust, and hate. In this short story, the young girl who is a freshman in high school believes she is in love with this young man who is a senior in high school. Throughout the story she demonstrates how much she loves him by her obsession to follow him around. He works at a market and she would always make excuses to go to the market and purchase certain items. The only reason she would go is to see her love. The young man worked in the back and she would hang around just to see him walk by the door. She was all excited when he talked to her but all he said was excuse me. Throughout the whole story the young girl has this crush on the young man but the young man is starting to realize this and is thinking what to do about it. Love for women is something that is very serious and delicate. Love for a man is basically not a big deal until it becomes serious in a sense of marriage. This young lady shows how much she loves him by always starring at him in the hallways and he shows nothing when he is feeling something inside for this girl. Basically what I'm sa... ...at girl and not have any strings attached afterwards. The girl was looking for strings attached because girls believe that a kiss means their going to be together. The man just wanted a kiss and the girl wanted to be with him. There responses were different and their interpretations were different as well. In conclusion, the short story showed how a young girl could love a young man who did not even know she existed. She showed her love for this man by doing things out of the ordinary just to see his face. The short story showed the love between a woman and a man and the lust between the two and also to affects of the kiss. The affects of the kiss were basic. They never spoke to each other and never the less have the opportunity to have the chance to talk to each other again. The short story demonstrated many of key points in a crush and love scenario.

Gender Barriers in Athletics Essay -- Sports Feminism Equality Essays

Gender Barriers in Athletics 2. What are the social and cultural costs and benefits of an individual (male or female) entering a non-traditional sport for their gender/sex (eg women who enter body building, power lifting, boxing; men who enter synchronized swimming or field hockey)? Throughout history it is clear that not only women, but both genders have faced seemingly insurmountable barriers when attempting to break into a sport that is not "proper" or stereotypical for their gender to participate in. Though as a society we are making strides towards equality in sport, such as the advent of Title IX, it is clear that we still have a long way to go. Though breakthrough policies such as this are moving in the right direction, other evidence points towards the fact that as a society, we are still more comfortable with women in traditionally female sports such as field hockey as opposed to boxing, and men in traditionally male sports such as body building as opposed to synchronized swimming, since these activities fit with our preconceived notions of what is "normal" for a specific gender. Supporting this idea is the fact that though we seem to be moving towards equality in sport with many coeducational universities and colleges having sport opportunities for bot h sexes, funding is still extremely unequal, as states by the Women's Sports Foundation in 2001: But women and girl athletes have yet to reach parity with men. Women are still only about one-third of interscholastic and intercollegiate athletes. In addition, women college athletes receive less than 26% of college sports' operating budgets, and less than 28% of college recruiting money. Though as a society we are making progress towards equality, there is no way... ...n of both sexes, as described below by Sandi Bittler, Director of women's sports marketing for Nike: It's not like when the boys used to play sports and the girls play with dolls. Now there is crossover in appeal. The first time I noticed it was in 1995 when I traveled with the women's national basketball team tour to 30 universities. For the first time I started seeing these female athletes touching younger kids and it didn't matter if it was a young boy or a young girl (http://www.reporternews.com/1999/features/sport0822.html). In this manner, it is clear that these athletes are taking strides towards equality by affecting the future of our society, youth. Though as a society we face many remaining obstacles in striving toward gender equality in sport, it is important to look at what has been accomplished, and also look to the future for what can still be done.

Three Solutions to Deforestation Essay -- environment green global war

Three Solutions to Deforestation   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If a tree falls in the woods and no one's there to hear it, does it make a sound? Or rather, if a tree falls in the woods and no one's there to hear it, does anybody even care? This saying epitomizes the world's current view on deforestation, most notably in the Brazilian Amazon, which is known as 'The Lungs of the Earth.' Deforestation is defined as the long-term or permanent removal of forest cover, usually accompanied by burning, which is then converted to a non-forested land use. Deforestation doesn't just affect the indigenous people living in the Amazon or on a grander scale, the people of South America; rather, it arguably affects the entire world. More than 12 percent of the 2 million square miles of Brazilian Amazonian rainforest, which produces one-fifth of the earth's oxygen, has been deforested and converted to farmland or grazing for cattle (www.rainforest.org). This may not sound like that large of a problem, but as a result of deforestation, Brazil now accounts for nearly 10 percent of the world's greenhouse gases being emitted into the atmosphere. "Tropical rainforests once covered more than 14 percent of the Earth?s land area? they now amount to less than 6 percent" (Tropical Rainforest Coalition, 1996). Basically, if something isn't done soon, then the world won't have enough oxygen to support itself.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some would argue that there is nothing that they can do or that they?re only one person. But one person can save one tree, and that?s one more tree that won?t be cut down. Some also argue that there are no solutions to deforestation when in reality there are; people just don?t realize that they?re there. Here is a list of three possible solutions that could curtail any more careless logging of the Brazilian Amazon. First, people around the world could ?buy? acres of rainforest. The Adopt-An-Acre Program, which was started by The Nature Conservancy and Earth's Birthday Project in 1990, has combined their efforts to educate children all over the country about the conservation of rainforests. Because of their diligent efforts, $5 million has been raised and 150,000 acres of rainforest saved (www.savenature.org). These facts alone show that the adoption program works, but the downside is that many underprivileged children and schools won?t be able to finance this kind of endeavor. Many people also d... ...n Amazon had been deforested. By 2000 almost 15 percent had been destroyed. This means a forest area the size of France was lost in only thirty years? (www.greenpeace.org). This illustrates how dangerous and threatening deforestation to the Brazilian Amazon truly is. Until the United States and the rest of the world comes to their senses and realizes that in their haste for wood products they?re, in reality, reducing the amount of breathable oxygen that they have, then by the year 2050, that same oxygen will be cut by one-fifth. Deforestation is the second-hand smoke of the world. Within fifty years, how breathable will our air really be? Unless people everywhere start to realize how detrimental deforestation really is, then we will leave nothing to the next generation except a tainted, asphyxiated planet. Works Cited Effects and Solutions to Deforestation. www.greenpeace.org. 3 Nov. 2001. Effects of Deforestation in Brazil. www.rainforest.org. 2 Nov. 2001. Revington, John. ?Stopping Tropical Deforestation.? New Renaissance. November 2000.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  November 3, 2001 http://www.ru.org/stopping-deforestation.htm. Adopt-An-Acre Program. www.savenature.org. 1 Nov. 2001.

More Work for Mother

It was in the nineteenth century when a new adulation of women came to be developed.   More popularly known as the Victorian Age, it was during this era when the sacredness of the hearth and home has been born.   It is a philosophy that has been endorsed with intricacies and complications from the year 1830 until 1860 (Payne NP). Technology has caused an improvement in our standard of living.   While it claims to make our lives easier, it doesn’t always appear to be a time saving device.   â€Å"The creation of electric appliances has reduced the amount of work children and husbands do around the house.†Ã‚   Wives, on their end consume the same amount of time doing the household chores because the help they use to receive has been included in the elimination that gave way to the advent of technological advances (Cowan 102 – 217). The functionalist interpretation of the recent history of the family has been discussed.  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Industrialization was a participant in the ‘backward search for femininity' because some of women's roles in the household were being replaced by technology; women were searching for new ways of being a woman within the home.†Ã‚   Some theories would have it that the advent of home appliances has caused wives to leave their homes and find their niche in the outside world.   Technology has been the causal agent to the entrance of women into the workforce outside the portals of their own homes (Ibid, par. 2). Running a family means learning new things every single day.   It’s like learning earth science and geography.   It doesn’t end when you tie the knot.   Instead, it just reminds you that you have just advanced to graduate – level studies.   Just when you think you’ve mastered it, it changes itself a bit and as a result, you have re- learn it.   After all, family life is a lifestyle.   Old habit dies hard indeed that though there has been a transition from the hearth to the microwave, wives remained domesticated just the same.   Times have passed and things have changed but you still find yourself doing the same things with just a little twist or two.   For there will always be days when it feels like you’re struggling through remedial math. Works Cited Cowan, R. More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hearth to the Microwave. New York: Basic Books, 1983. Payne, Jennifer. â€Å"The Nineteenth Century â€Å"Cult of the Lady.† 24 August 2008. Jennifer Payne’s History. Retrieved January 28, 2008 from http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/7032/cultoflady.html. â€Å"Why Labor Saving Devices Don't Save Labor: The History of Household Technology.† 23   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   February 2005. Pamela E. Mack History 323. Retrieved January 25, 2008 from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.clemson.edu/caah/history/FacultyPages/PamMack/lec323/household.htm.      

Critics of the immigration law Essay

The topic I have chosen is â€Å"Illegal Migration on the U. S. Border† since this is currently a significant issue as reflected by the heavy media coverage depicting the allegedly alarming rate by which the number of illegal immigrants has risen in the United States since 2004. The Washington Post, for instance, reports that approximately half a million immigrants have poured in last year, outnumbering the number of legal immigrants. (Cohn A13) The concern over illegal immigration has therefore drawn out varied responses and put immense pressure on the Government, including President Bush who is reported to be proposing granting temporary working visas to foreigners as part of the legal remedies to the situation apart from the proposed wall to be built in the borders between the U. S. and Mexico and heavy personnel enforcement in patrolling the borders. (BBC News) Its nearest neighbor, Mexico is logically the foremost source of both legal and illegal immigrants in the country. I have so far been able to check online sources of information such as the news networks mentioned above. I would like to peruse additional materials such as previous studies on the issue and other materials such as those printed by the advocates and critics of the immigration law in order to gain a deeper understanding of the topic mentioned. From my perspective, there is indeed a clear need to strictly enforce the immigration laws to address concerns on homeland security and other threats posed by illegal immigration, including the syndicate groups that have obviously been taking advantage of both the laxity of the State in patrolling its borders and the desperation of Mexicans and other nationals who are after the supposedly greener pastures offered by the United States. I therefore see no harm in the President’s proposal for the issuance of temporary work visas to immigrants. On the contrary, it would help make the monitoring easier for immigration officers and therefore also help control the influx of illegal immigrants in the country. Works Cited: Cohn, D’Vera. â€Å"Report Details Growth in Illegal Migration. † Washington Post. 28 Sept. 2005:A13 â€Å"Viewpoints: U. S. Illegal Migration. † 23 May 2006. BBC News Online. 1 July 2007.